Framework for critical thinking skills as a preservice physics teacher competence
Abstract
Critical thinking skills (CTS) are among the 21st-century skills needed. Preservice physics teachers need CTS to solve problems critically, not only in academics but also in life. This research offers a comprehensive perspective and understanding of critical thinking skills as a framework for measuring the ability of preservice physics teachers. The approach is qualitative with methodology analysis, and the documentary content produces a theoretical competence framework. Findings are then applied to determine CTS indicators' relevant competencies, such as clarity assumption, interpretation, analysis, reason, and evaluation. Preservice physics teachers can understand and use these results to evaluate CTS. The research emphasizes optimizing CTS for preservice physics teachers because education is increasingly complex and dynamic.
References
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Adams, W. K., & Wieman, C. E. (2015). Analyzing the many skills involved in solving complex physics problems. American Journal of Physics, 83(5), 459–467. https://doi.org/10.1119/1.4901300
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Arifin, Z., Saputro, S., & Kamari, A. (2025). The effect of inquiry-based learning on students’ critical thinking skills in science education: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education, 21(3), 2592.
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Bhakti, Y. B., Arthur, R., & Supriyati, Y. (2023). Development of an assessment instrument for critical thinking skills in Physics: A systematic literature review. Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 2596(1), 012067.
Booth, A., Martyn-St James, M., Clowes, M., & Sutton, A. (2021). Systematic approaches to a successful literature review (2nd ed.). SAGE Publications.
Bueno, P. M., & Rodas, R. S. (2025). Assessment of the transfer of inductive reasoning skills in the context of science teaching. In New Perspectives in Science Education 2025 Conference Proceedings.
Butcher, K. R., Hudson, M., Lane, M., & Larson, M. (2023). Critical thinking during science investigations: What do practicing teachers value and observe? Teachers and Teaching, 29(6), 594–614. https://doi.org/10.1080/13540602.2023.2176903
Chusni, M. M., Saputro, S., & Rahardjo, S. B. (2021). Student’s critical thinking skills through discovery learning model using e-learning on environmental change subject matter. European Journal of Educational Research, 10(3), 1123–1135.
Dwyer, C. P., Hogan, M. J., & Stewart, I. (2014). An integrated critical thinking framework for the 21st century. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 12, 43–52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2013.12.004
Ennis, R. H. (1996). Critical thinking dispositions: Their nature and assessability. Informal Logic, 18(2), 165–182.
Facione, P. A. (1990). Critical thinking: A statement of expert consensus for purposes of educational assessment and instruction. The Delphi Report. American Philosophical Association.
Fitzgerald, T. (2012). Documents and documentary analysis. In A. R. J. Briggs, M. Coleman, & M. Morrison (Eds.), Research methods in educational leadership and management (3rd ed., pp. 296–308). SAGE Publications.
Gencer, A. S., & Dogan, H. (2020). The assessment of the fifth-grade students’ science critical thinking skills through design-based STEM education. International Journal of Assessment Tools in Education, 7(3), 690–714. https://doi.org/10.21449/ijate.744640
Gibson, G. (Ed.). (2016). Critical thinking: Theories, methods, and challenges. Nova Science Publishers.
Giri, V., & Paily, M. U. (2020). Effect of scientific argumentation on the development of critical thinking. Science & Education, 29(3), 673–690. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11191-020-00126-y
Gotoh, Y. (2015). Development of critical thinking self-assessment system using wearable device. In Proceedings of the International Association for Development of the Information Society (pp. 387–389).
Heard, J., Scoular, C., Duckworth, D., Ramalingam, D., & Teo, I. (2020). Critical thinking: Skill development framework. Australian Council for Educational Research (ACER).
Hidayat, R., Nugroho, I., Zainuddin, Z., & Ingai, T. A. (2024). A systematic review of analytical thinking skills in STEM education settings. Information and Learning Sciences, 125(7/8), 565–586. https://doi.org/10.1108/ILS-06-2023-0079
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Jamil, M., Hafeez, F. A., & Muhammad, N. (2024). Critical thinking development for 21st century: Analysis of Physics curriculum. Journal of Social & Organizational Matters, 3(1), 1–10.
Jean, W. L., & Jiar, Y. K. (2016). Critical thinking in young children. Man in India, 96(1–2), 579–587.
Lovegreen, V. (2020). Critical thinking pedagogy and quality assurance in the United States. In A. Rashid & F. M. Dzakiria (Eds.), From pedagogy to quality assurance in education: An international perspective (pp. 13–28). Emerald Publishing Limited.
Ma’Ruf, M., Setiawan, A., Suhandi, A., & Siahaan, P. (2020). Identification of the ability to solve the problem of contextual physics possessed by prospective physics teachers related to basic physics content. Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 1521(2), 022011. https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1521/2/022011
Ma, S., & Chen, C. (2023). Are digital natives overconfident in their privacy literacy? Discrepancy between self-assessed and actual privacy literacy, and their impacts on privacy behaviors. Frontiers in Psychology, 14, 10477717. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10477717/
Madden, J., & Dedic, M. (2022). Engaging with critical thinking: An action research project. English Australia Journal, 38(1), 16–23.
Maina, M. P., Maina, J. S., & Hunt, K. (2016). Initiative games in physical education: A practical approach for teaching critical thinking skills—Part 1. Strategies, 29(3), 28–33. https://doi.org/10.1080/08924562.2016.1145534
Marcum, J. A. (2017). The role of critical thinking in clinical reasoning. Advances in Psychology Research, 15, 1–12.
Marfu’i, L. N. (2019). The analysis of critical thinking skills test in social-problems for physics education students with Rasch model. Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 1280(5), 052012. https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1280/5/052012
Marthaliakirana, A. D., Suwono, H., Saefi, M., & Gofur, A. (2022). Problem-based learning with metacognitive prompts for enhancing argumentation and critical thinking of secondary school students. Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education, 18(9). https://doi.org/10.29333/ejmste/12304
Nyimbili, F., & Nyimbili, L. (2024). Types of purposive sampling techniques with their examples and application in qualitative research studies. British Journal of Multidisciplinary and Advanced Studies, 5(1), 90–99.
Papathanasiou, I. V., Kleisiaris, C. F., Fradelos, E. C., Kakou, K., & Kourkouta, L. (2014). Critical thinking: The development of an essential skill for nursing students. Acta Informatica Medica, 22(4), 283–286. https://doi.org/10.5455/aim.2014.22.283-286
Paul, R., & Elder, L. (2019). The miniature guide to critical thinking concepts and tools (8th ed.). Rowman & Littlefield.
Payan-Carreira, R., Sebastião, L., Cristóvão, A. M., & Rebelo, H. (2022). How to enhance students’ self-regulation. Nova Science Publishers.
Purwasih, D., Wilujeng, I., Wiyarsi, A., & Zakwandi, R. (2024). Framework design thinking as a teacher competences. KnE Social Sciences, 514–523. https://doi.org/10.18502/kss.v8i9.14258
Rabu, S. N. A., Mahdzir, A. M., Aris, B., & Tasir, Z. (2016). Assessing critical thinking skills of faculty of education undergraduate students with MaCTIv4 (Malaysian Critical Thinking Instrument-Version 4). Man in India, 97(17), 105–119.
Rivas, S. F., Saiz, C., & Ossa, C. (2022). Metacognitive strategies and development of critical thinking in higher education. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 913219. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.913219
Rowe, M. P., Gillespie, B. M., Harris, K. R., Koether, S. D., Shannon, L. J. Y., & Rose, L. A. (2015). Redesigning a general education science course to promote critical thinking. CBE—Life Sciences Education, 14(3), 30. https://doi.org/10.1187/cbe.15-02-0032
Saikia, H., & Roy, N. R. (2024). Fostering critical thinking skills in modern learners: A peep into higher educational institutions. In S. Panda (Ed.), Digital skill development for Industry 4.0 (pp. 46–51). Auerbach Publications.
Salazar, L. M., Díaz, M. H. R., & Slisko, J. (2023). Critical thinking development in physics courses by PBL in virtual collaboration environments. International Journal of Innovation in Science and Mathematics Education, 31(4).
Saputro, S. D., Tukiran, T., & Supardi, Z. A. I. (2022). Effectiveness of clarity learning model: The new model learning to improve critical thinking skills advanced clarification in physics courses. Pegem Journal of Education and Instruction, 12(3), 49–58. https://doi.org/10.47750/pegegog.12.03.06
Schünemann, H. J., Vist, G. E., Higgins, J. P. T., Santesso, N., Deeks, J. J., Glasziou, P., & GRADE Working Group. (2019). Interpreting results and drawing conclusions. In J. P. T. Higgins, J. Thomas, J. Chandler, et al. (Eds.), Cochrane handbook for systematic reviews of interventions (pp. 403–431). Wiley. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119536604.ch24
Sharma, M., Doshi, B. M., Verma, M., & Verma, A. K. (2022). Strategies for developing critical-thinking capabilities. World Journal of English Language, 12(3), 117. https://doi.org/10.5430/wjel.v12n3p117
Smith, E. M., & Holmes, N. G. (2020). Evaluating instructional labs’ use of deliberate practice to teach critical thinking skills. Physical Review Physics Education Research, 16(2), 020150. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevPhysEducRes.16.020150
Stephenson, N. S., & Sadler-McKnight, N. P. (2016). Developing critical thinking skills using the science writing heuristic in the chemistry laboratory. Chemistry Education Research and Practice, 17(1), 72–79. https://doi.org/10.1039/C5RP00102A
Sutarno, S., Setiawan, A., Suhandi, A., Kaniawati, I., & Malik, A. (2019, February). The development and validation of critical thinking skills test on photoelectric effect for pre-service physics teachers. Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 1157(3), 032032. https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1157/3/032032
Sutiani, A. (2021). Implementation of an inquiry learning model with science literacy to improve student critical thinking skills. International Journal of Instruction, 14(2), 117–138. https://doi.org/10.29333/iji.2021.1427a
Tiruneh, D. T. (2017). Measuring critical thinking in physics: Development and validation of a critical thinking test in electricity and magnetism. International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education, 15(4), 663–682. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10763-016-9723-0
Tiruneh, D. T., Verburgh, A., & Elen, J. (2014). Effectiveness of critical thinking instruction in higher education: A systematic review of intervention studies. Higher Education Studies, 4(1), 9–44. https://doi.org/10.5539/hes.v4n1p9
Utami, B., Probosari, R. M., Saputro, S., & Masykuri, M. (2019). Empowering critical thinking skills with problem solving in higher education. Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 1280(3), 032047. https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1280/3/032047
Vieira, R. M., & Tenreiro-Vieira, C. (2016). Fostering scientific literacy and critical thinking in elementary science education. International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education, 14(4), 659–680. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10763-014-9605-2
Warsah, I., Morganna, R., Uyun, M., & Afandi, M. (2021). The impact of collaborative learning on learners’ critical thinking skills. International Journal of Instruction, 14(2), 443–460. https://doi.org/10.29333/iji.2021.14225a
Watson, G., & Glaser, E. M. (2008). Watson–Glaser critical thinking appraisal, forms A and B manual. Pearson Education.
Wulandari, R., Jatmiko, B., Budiyanto, M., Hariyono, E., Lestari, N. A., & Prahani, B. K. (2021). A critical thinking skill profile of science education undergraduate student in basic physics. Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 2110(1), 012030. https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/2110/1/012030
Abasaid, M., & Ferreira, M. P. (2022). Perception and knowledge of critical thinking: A qualitative research study with Professors of Higher Education in Oman. Journal of Educational Studies and Multidisciplinary Approaches, 2(2). https://doi.org/10.51383/jesma.2022.59
Adams, W. K., & Wieman, C. E. (2015). Analyzing the many skills involved in solving complex physics problems. American Journal of Physics, 83(5), 459–467. https://doi.org/10.1119/1.4901300
Ali, G., & Awan, R. (2021). Thinking-based instructional practices and academic achievement of undergraduate science students: Exploring the role of critical thinking skills and dispositions. Journal of Innovative Sciences, 7(1), 56–70.
Arifin, Z., Saputro, S., & Kamari, A. (2025). The effect of inquiry-based learning on students’ critical thinking skills in science education: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education, 21(3), 2592.
Bao, L., & Koenig, K. (2019). Physics education research for 21st century learning. Disciplinary and Interdisciplinary Science Education Research, 1(1), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1186/s43031-019-0007-8
Belecina, R. R., & Ocampo, J. J. M. (2018). Effecting change on students’ critical thinking in problem solving. Educare, 10(2).
Bhakti, Y. B., Arthur, R., & Supriyati, Y. (2023). Development of an assessment instrument for critical thinking skills in Physics: A systematic literature review. Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 2596(1), 012067.
Booth, A., Martyn-St James, M., Clowes, M., & Sutton, A. (2021). Systematic approaches to a successful literature review (2nd ed.). SAGE Publications.
Bueno, P. M., & Rodas, R. S. (2025). Assessment of the transfer of inductive reasoning skills in the context of science teaching. In New Perspectives in Science Education 2025 Conference Proceedings.
Butcher, K. R., Hudson, M., Lane, M., & Larson, M. (2023). Critical thinking during science investigations: What do practicing teachers value and observe? Teachers and Teaching, 29(6), 594–614. https://doi.org/10.1080/13540602.2023.2176903
Chusni, M. M., Saputro, S., & Rahardjo, S. B. (2021). Student’s critical thinking skills through discovery learning model using e-learning on environmental change subject matter. European Journal of Educational Research, 10(3), 1123–1135.
Dwyer, C. P., Hogan, M. J., & Stewart, I. (2014). An integrated critical thinking framework for the 21st century. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 12, 43–52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2013.12.004
Ennis, R. H. (1996). Critical thinking dispositions: Their nature and assessability. Informal Logic, 18(2), 165–182.
Facione, P. A. (1990). Critical thinking: A statement of expert consensus for purposes of educational assessment and instruction. The Delphi Report. American Philosophical Association.
Fitzgerald, T. (2012). Documents and documentary analysis. In A. R. J. Briggs, M. Coleman, & M. Morrison (Eds.), Research methods in educational leadership and management (3rd ed., pp. 296–308). SAGE Publications.
Gencer, A. S., & Dogan, H. (2020). The assessment of the fifth-grade students’ science critical thinking skills through design-based STEM education. International Journal of Assessment Tools in Education, 7(3), 690–714. https://doi.org/10.21449/ijate.744640
Gibson, G. (Ed.). (2016). Critical thinking: Theories, methods, and challenges. Nova Science Publishers.
Giri, V., & Paily, M. U. (2020). Effect of scientific argumentation on the development of critical thinking. Science & Education, 29(3), 673–690. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11191-020-00126-y
Gotoh, Y. (2015). Development of critical thinking self-assessment system using wearable device. In Proceedings of the International Association for Development of the Information Society (pp. 387–389).
Heard, J., Scoular, C., Duckworth, D., Ramalingam, D., & Teo, I. (2020). Critical thinking: Skill development framework. Australian Council for Educational Research (ACER).
Hidayat, R., Nugroho, I., Zainuddin, Z., & Ingai, T. A. (2024). A systematic review of analytical thinking skills in STEM education settings. Information and Learning Sciences, 125(7/8), 565–586. https://doi.org/10.1108/ILS-06-2023-0079
Hitchcock, D. (2017). Critical thinking as an educational ideal. In H. S. Pinto & R. Santos (Eds.), Argumentation Library (Vol. 30, pp. 477–497). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-53562-3_30
Jamil, M., Hafeez, F. A., & Muhammad, N. (2024). Critical thinking development for 21st century: Analysis of Physics curriculum. Journal of Social & Organizational Matters, 3(1), 1–10.
Jean, W. L., & Jiar, Y. K. (2016). Critical thinking in young children. Man in India, 96(1–2), 579–587.
Lovegreen, V. (2020). Critical thinking pedagogy and quality assurance in the United States. In A. Rashid & F. M. Dzakiria (Eds.), From pedagogy to quality assurance in education: An international perspective (pp. 13–28). Emerald Publishing Limited.
Ma’Ruf, M., Setiawan, A., Suhandi, A., & Siahaan, P. (2020). Identification of the ability to solve the problem of contextual physics possessed by prospective physics teachers related to basic physics content. Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 1521(2), 022011. https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1521/2/022011
Ma, S., & Chen, C. (2023). Are digital natives overconfident in their privacy literacy? Discrepancy between self-assessed and actual privacy literacy, and their impacts on privacy behaviors. Frontiers in Psychology, 14, 10477717. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10477717/
Madden, J., & Dedic, M. (2022). Engaging with critical thinking: An action research project. English Australia Journal, 38(1), 16–23.
Maina, M. P., Maina, J. S., & Hunt, K. (2016). Initiative games in physical education: A practical approach for teaching critical thinking skills—Part 1. Strategies, 29(3), 28–33. https://doi.org/10.1080/08924562.2016.1145534
Marcum, J. A. (2017). The role of critical thinking in clinical reasoning. Advances in Psychology Research, 15, 1–12.
Marfu’i, L. N. (2019). The analysis of critical thinking skills test in social-problems for physics education students with Rasch model. Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 1280(5), 052012. https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1280/5/052012
Marthaliakirana, A. D., Suwono, H., Saefi, M., & Gofur, A. (2022). Problem-based learning with metacognitive prompts for enhancing argumentation and critical thinking of secondary school students. Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education, 18(9). https://doi.org/10.29333/ejmste/12304
Nyimbili, F., & Nyimbili, L. (2024). Types of purposive sampling techniques with their examples and application in qualitative research studies. British Journal of Multidisciplinary and Advanced Studies, 5(1), 90–99.
Papathanasiou, I. V., Kleisiaris, C. F., Fradelos, E. C., Kakou, K., & Kourkouta, L. (2014). Critical thinking: The development of an essential skill for nursing students. Acta Informatica Medica, 22(4), 283–286. https://doi.org/10.5455/aim.2014.22.283-286
Paul, R., & Elder, L. (2019). The miniature guide to critical thinking concepts and tools (8th ed.). Rowman & Littlefield.
Payan-Carreira, R., Sebastião, L., Cristóvão, A. M., & Rebelo, H. (2022). How to enhance students’ self-regulation. Nova Science Publishers.
Purwasih, D., Wilujeng, I., Wiyarsi, A., & Zakwandi, R. (2024). Framework design thinking as a teacher competences. KnE Social Sciences, 514–523. https://doi.org/10.18502/kss.v8i9.14258
Rabu, S. N. A., Mahdzir, A. M., Aris, B., & Tasir, Z. (2016). Assessing critical thinking skills of faculty of education undergraduate students with MaCTIv4 (Malaysian Critical Thinking Instrument-Version 4). Man in India, 97(17), 105–119.
Rivas, S. F., Saiz, C., & Ossa, C. (2022). Metacognitive strategies and development of critical thinking in higher education. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 913219. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.913219
Rowe, M. P., Gillespie, B. M., Harris, K. R., Koether, S. D., Shannon, L. J. Y., & Rose, L. A. (2015). Redesigning a general education science course to promote critical thinking. CBE—Life Sciences Education, 14(3), 30. https://doi.org/10.1187/cbe.15-02-0032
Saikia, H., & Roy, N. R. (2024). Fostering critical thinking skills in modern learners: A peep into higher educational institutions. In S. Panda (Ed.), Digital skill development for Industry 4.0 (pp. 46–51). Auerbach Publications.
Salazar, L. M., Díaz, M. H. R., & Slisko, J. (2023). Critical thinking development in physics courses by PBL in virtual collaboration environments. International Journal of Innovation in Science and Mathematics Education, 31(4).
Saputro, S. D., Tukiran, T., & Supardi, Z. A. I. (2022). Effectiveness of clarity learning model: The new model learning to improve critical thinking skills advanced clarification in physics courses. Pegem Journal of Education and Instruction, 12(3), 49–58. https://doi.org/10.47750/pegegog.12.03.06
Schünemann, H. J., Vist, G. E., Higgins, J. P. T., Santesso, N., Deeks, J. J., Glasziou, P., & GRADE Working Group. (2019). Interpreting results and drawing conclusions. In J. P. T. Higgins, J. Thomas, J. Chandler, et al. (Eds.), Cochrane handbook for systematic reviews of interventions (pp. 403–431). Wiley. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119536604.ch24
Sharma, M., Doshi, B. M., Verma, M., & Verma, A. K. (2022). Strategies for developing critical-thinking capabilities. World Journal of English Language, 12(3), 117. https://doi.org/10.5430/wjel.v12n3p117
Smith, E. M., & Holmes, N. G. (2020). Evaluating instructional labs’ use of deliberate practice to teach critical thinking skills. Physical Review Physics Education Research, 16(2), 020150. https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevPhysEducRes.16.020150
Stephenson, N. S., & Sadler-McKnight, N. P. (2016). Developing critical thinking skills using the science writing heuristic in the chemistry laboratory. Chemistry Education Research and Practice, 17(1), 72–79. https://doi.org/10.1039/C5RP00102A
Sutarno, S., Setiawan, A., Suhandi, A., Kaniawati, I., & Malik, A. (2019, February). The development and validation of critical thinking skills test on photoelectric effect for pre-service physics teachers. Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 1157(3), 032032. https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1157/3/032032
Sutiani, A. (2021). Implementation of an inquiry learning model with science literacy to improve student critical thinking skills. International Journal of Instruction, 14(2), 117–138. https://doi.org/10.29333/iji.2021.1427a
Tiruneh, D. T. (2017). Measuring critical thinking in physics: Development and validation of a critical thinking test in electricity and magnetism. International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education, 15(4), 663–682. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10763-016-9723-0
Tiruneh, D. T., Verburgh, A., & Elen, J. (2014). Effectiveness of critical thinking instruction in higher education: A systematic review of intervention studies. Higher Education Studies, 4(1), 9–44. https://doi.org/10.5539/hes.v4n1p9
Utami, B., Probosari, R. M., Saputro, S., & Masykuri, M. (2019). Empowering critical thinking skills with problem solving in higher education. Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 1280(3), 032047. https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1280/3/032047
Vieira, R. M., & Tenreiro-Vieira, C. (2016). Fostering scientific literacy and critical thinking in elementary science education. International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education, 14(4), 659–680. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10763-014-9605-2
Warsah, I., Morganna, R., Uyun, M., & Afandi, M. (2021). The impact of collaborative learning on learners’ critical thinking skills. International Journal of Instruction, 14(2), 443–460. https://doi.org/10.29333/iji.2021.14225a
Watson, G., & Glaser, E. M. (2008). Watson–Glaser critical thinking appraisal, forms A and B manual. Pearson Education.
Wulandari, R., Jatmiko, B., Budiyanto, M., Hariyono, E., Lestari, N. A., & Prahani, B. K. (2021). A critical thinking skill profile of science education undergraduate student in basic physics. Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 2110(1), 012030. https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/2110/1/012030
Authors
Misbah, M., Hamidah, I., Sriyati, S., Samsudin, A., Qamariah, Q., & Rahman, N. F. A. (2025). Framework for critical thinking skills as a preservice physics teacher competence. Journal of Environment and Sustainability Education, 3(3), 314–322. https://doi.org/10.62672/joease.v3i3.69
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